Sephardic Music Today. An Artistic Perspective by Hazzan Dr. Ramón Tasat
Historical and geographical settings The history of the Jews of Spain is truly remarkable. Their story began some time in the seventh century and continues through today. Sefarad, the beloved Spain, embraced a large Jewish community that lived in peace with her Muslim and Christian brethren for more than a thousand years. In 1492, the Spanish monarchs, Isabella of Aragon and Ferdinando of Castille, decreed the expulsion of the Jewish people. Ironically, these Jews always remembered their land with love in spite of the adverse circumstances of their exile. The Sefaradim settled around the Mediterranean Sea, the Balkans, North Africa and in other areas of the Ottoman Empire. For five centuries, their descendants have maintained their distinctive heritage while absorbing some of the characteristics of their new places of residence. Geographical location was another decisive factor in the trend of acculturation and thus, two major groups emerged: the Eastern and the Western Mediterranean Sefaradim. Musical characteristics As Israel Katz states in his Musical Legacy of the Judeo-Spanish Romancero, there are certain stylistic components common to both traditions: 1) Songs are sung monophonically without accompaniment; 2) Songs are mostly strophic and the quatrain form prevails; 3) Musical dynamics are rather fixed. In my opinion this categorization is also valid for religious music as well. Among other common characteristics, the two groups also share the use of flexible melodies and rhythmical patterns. With a few exceptions, the tunes are eminently vocal with a short melodic range. A comparison between the two traditions shows that Western melodies are mostly modal while the Eastern types comply with the Turko-Arabic system of musical modes called “Maqqamat”. The music of the Eastern Mediterranean Sefaradim, those that resided amongst the Balkan people (Turkey, Greece, former Yugoslavia, etc.) is often strange to the Western ear because it exhibits a great deal of microtonal intonation and displays a large amount of vocal embellishments. This explains why the Western community generally characterizes Sephardic (and Oriental) singing as nasal and/or flat. This perception is further accentuated by the unpredictable rhythms that do not follow the regular meters as commonly found in Western music. This is true, to a lesser extent, for the music of the Western Mediterranean Sefaradim (Northern Morocco, Amsterdam, Livorno, etc.) who assimilated many of the attributes of Western music. Sephardic religious music was conceived to be performed a capella, that is, without instrumental accompaniment. For secular events, percussion instruments and even string instruments (oud, violin, mandolin, etc.) were widely used. It is not certain whether the music we identify with Sephardic Jewry originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Due to the lack of written musical sources prior to the twentieth century, the evolution of Sephardic music from medieval to modern times cannot be documented. Yet, the material gathered from various historical, literary, musical studies and personal interviews indicates that most texts are based on Spanish ballads and that the influence of the surrounding musical cultures was profound. “Una tarde de verano”, also called “Volviendo de Casablanca”, is an adaptation of the medieval Spanish ballad “Don Bueso and his sister”. Many different versions of this Romance are found. The main story narrates the fortunate re-encounter of a Spanish youth with a señorita of great charm, whom he rescues from Moorish captivity. Great is his astonishment when he discovers that the lady with whom he had fallen in love, and wished to marry, was none other than the sister he had once lost. This tune features melodic characteristics typical of Spanish music. This northern Moroccan melody is also applied to the singing of the liturgical poem “Adon ‘Olam”. “Una matica de ruda” is a Judeo-Spanish adaptation of the old Spanish ballad “Una guirnalda de rosas”. This dramatic song poignantly narrates the universal anguish of a mother who senses that her daughter is interested in marrying a gentile lad and thus separating herself from the Jewish community. In a different version of this song, the mother advises her daughter, “It is better to marry a Jewish man you do not love than to marry a non Jew”, and concludes: “no t’echés a perdición”, do not lose yourself. It seems, however, that her battle was already lost. This song is a prime example of how Ladino songs frequently touch upon universal topics. Oral tradition was the main vehicle for the dissemination of the Judeo-Spanish repertoire. This process has contributed to disparities in the outcome of the texts as well as dynamic changes. Therefore, we find many versions of a particular poem. The Turkish song “Avre este Abajour”, tells the story of a young lad who tries to convince his beloved to let him in but to no avail. Feeling rejected, he retaliates by cursing her for life. In a different version from Cassaba, she taunts him back saying, “In your arms I shall die, lying on your breast plate garment. I shall expire while kissing you on each cheek”. In “Adío querida”, a modern love song that has become enormously popular among the Sefaradim, the best-known version consists of a monologue narrating a man’s disappointment for his unrequited love. Few know, however, that in another popular version originating in Sofia, Bulgaria, the woman responds bitterly, “Farewell, you are not mine anymore, return the ring that belongs to me”. Frequently, the contents of the different stanzas do not follow the main theme of the text. They are, rather, individual couplets often borrowed from another song. Musically, it is interesting to note that the melody for the refrain of “Adío querida” mirrors the melodic line of Verdi’s aria “Addio! del passato” from Act IV of the opera La Traviata. Recently, at a celebration of “Semana Sefarad”, I made the point that Sephardic Jews are convinced that Verdi has “borrowed” this wonderful tune from us, the Sefaradim! The use of contrafacta, a device involving the setting of a text, traditional or new, to aknown tune, became widespread among the Sefaradim especially after their expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula. A common element among Sephardic music is the assimilation of tunes from secular sources into the liturgy. For example, the song “Hija mía” is full of sarcasm. During a dialogue between a father and his daughter, the father tries to marry his daughter to a man that would please her but is unsuccessful. His daughter repeatedly rejects his choices. Finally, when he is at wits end, she accepts the proposal of a drunkard. Oddly enough, this Turkish melody is sometimes applied to the singing of the liturgical poem “El Adon”, a liturgical poem recited during the Sabbath. Frequently, the content of the different stanzas do not follow the main theme of the text. They are, rather, individual couplets often borrowed from another song. “Dieciocho años tengo” also called “El enamorado de la plaza”, a Ladino song originating in Bulgaria is a priori, a youthful account of a first love. A closer scrutiny of a lengthier version indicates that this first impression is far from true. The woman with whom he had fallen desperately in love with turned out to be the same woman who had rejected his own brother’s love. The brother then took his life and our hero killed her to avenge him. Language and literature Judeo-Spanish songs from secular sources are sung in Ladino or Haketia, a Moroccan variation of Ladino. Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish, is the language spoken and written by the Jews of Spanish origin. Originally, Ladino was written according to the unvocalized Rashi script. As time went on, however, the language evolved and patterned itself after the grammatical syntax of the Spanish language. This, in part, explains the disparity in pronunciation found among the different Sephardic communities. Modern Ladino basically reflects the phonetics, morphology and syntax of the Spanish of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries while retaining some unique characteristics of its own (vedrolís, tenyozo, llavedura, mancevico, to name a few.). Most of the non-Spanish originating words come from Hebrew (Sefarad, Haham, zemirot, etc.). A number of words are also borrowed from Turkish (rakí, bakal, pará, etc.). The Judeo-Spanish language stopped developing shortly after the Sefaradim departed from Spain. The subjects of the songs vary. There are Romances, traditional ballads of unrequited love, humorous tales, etc. Paraliturgical selections are numerous. “Coplas de Purim” is a rich corpus that celebrates the miracle of Purim. Some stanzas honor Queen Esther and her uncle Mordekhai, the heroes that saved the Persian Jews from destruction in 473 b.c.e. While other stanzas mock Haman (the villain that attempted to exterminate the Jews) as well as the members of his family. Another famous Ladino text is “Bendigamos”, the Ladino version of the Bircat haMazon. The Spanish Portuguese community sings this text to a very popular melody also used for the singing of the “Shirat haYam” (Exodus 15:1-18) and “Barukh haBa” (Psalm 118) among other selections. Other songs describe life cycle events. “Como la rosa en la güerta”, also called “La moribunda enamorada”, is one of the most famous endechas, a tragic song which poignantly describes the emotion a parent experiences at the death of a daughter. The melody of this Eastern Mediterranean song is also used during the commemoration of Tish’a be Ab. The insertion of short, Hebrew texts from the Bible into Judeo-Spanish
songs is also prevalent. An example of this henomenon is the inclusion
of excerpts from the Psalms into the song “Hi Torah Lanu Nitana”
originating in Northern Morocco. This Pyyut is sung at the festivals of
Simhat Torah and Shabu’ot during the Torah service. This is most
appropriate since this song describes how the Jews received the Torah
and compares her to a “beloved bride”. Part of the textual
refrain was borrowed from the Song of Songs 4:7. Other metaphors were
borrowed from the Psalms. It is interesting to note that when this poem
is written with Hebrew characters, it forms an acrostic of the Hebrew
alphabet.
General Considerations Uniformity is by no means the standard criterion in respect to Sephardic religious customs. Architectural tradition varies from place to place and stylistic unity is non-existent. Yet, we are able to identify some prominent features. Until modern times, it was customary for Sephardic Jews to worship in rooms of private homes that had been modified to suit the requirements of a place of prayer. The internal structure of a typical synagogue focuses on the Tebah, either round or oval, located in the center of the room facing the Hekhal or Ark. From this platform, the Hazzan conducts most of the service. Congregants sit facing each other in a circular fashion around the Tebah. When attending a Sephardic religious service, one observes that prayers are said out loud in their entirety. This practice, justified in the Middle Ages when prayer books were scarce and most individuals were unable to recite the prayers by heart, has become a Sephardic trademark.2 Through the centuries, Sefaradim have maintained a great zeal for the rules of pronunciation (kamatz katan, sheva na’ or nakh, daguesh hazak or kal, etc.) of our sacred tongue. Diphthongs are minimized and no sound differences are given to letters c and, with or without dagesh.3 In general, the emphasis of Hebrew words falls on the last syllable of a word (Toráh, berakháh, Haggadáh, etc.) and responds to the accentuations indicated by the Ta’ame haMikrah, the Signs for the Reading of biblical texts. The Sephardic scroll case of the Sefer Torah, the five books of Moses, is made of wood. It is decorated in leather or metal and stands upright on the Reading table. Its two halves open like a book to reveal the sacred parchment. Other unique customs include: the kissing of the Sefer Torah with ones lips (as opposed to kissing it with the help of a siddur or ones hand) and the beautiful practice of standing while a relative is called to read from the Torah. At the end of the Haftarah, the scriptural reading from the Prophets, the words “Go’alenu Adonai Tzeba’ot Shemo, kedosh Israel” (Heb., Our only Savior is God) are added to protect the congregants from false Messiahs whose message would deviate from the biblical teachings. Cantillation of Sacred Texts For the chanting of the Psalms, Sephardic Jews employ a variety of melodies based on psalmody. The Massoretic accents for Tehillim (Heb., Psalms) are part of a general melody that lengthens or shortens to match the length of each verse. For longer verses, a reciting tone is preceded by a few notes that function as an introductory formula. Each verse is chanted to a precise melodic beginning and ending. The middle section is left to the reader’s talent for improvisation. Responsorial and antiphonal psalmody has been common practice since antiquity. The different elements incorporated in the chanting of sacred texts (grammar, accentuation, vocalization, etc.) mirror the Ashkenazic counterparts. The graphic symbols used for punctuation remain identical. However, the music ¬—both the melodic cells associated with each cantillation sign as well as the overall music phrasing¬— is radically different and varies from community to community. Sacred literature Throughout the centuries, and especially during eleventh and twelfth century Spain, paytanim (Heb., poet-musicians) took it upon themselves to revitalize the liturgy by creating new poems and/or melodies to draw upon the popular love for singing. Songs praising God and the Sabbath were written in Hebrew, Ladino, Aramaic and Judeo-Arabic. Sephardic Jews are particularly fond of the poems written during the Spanish Golden Age by poets of the caliber of Yehuda haLevi, Shelomoh ibn Gabirol, and others. Their liturgical poetry eliminated language from rabbinical sources and strived for clear biblical Hebrew. “Lekha Dodi”, a liturgical hymn written by Rabbi Shelomoh Alkabetz in Safed, borrows some of its imagery from the Song of Songs and Isaiah Talmudic sources. The Sefaradim add a final line: “Boi khala, Shabbat malketa” (Come my Bride, the Sabbath Queen). Poetic form and thematic subjects were strongly influenced by medieval Arabic literary culture, predominant in the Iberian Peninsula. Notwithstanding, biblical quotations and allusions remain an important stylistic feature. In “Shalom leBen Dodi”, traditionally sung for weddings and for the holiday of Simhat Torah, the language of the Song of Songs is found throughout. “Shuvu laTora” is a pyyut originating in Morocco and sung on Shabu’ot and Simhat Torah at the Torah service. It is a call for repentance and a request to God not to abandon us. On the second stanza we hear: “Why does the Egyptian master/Strike a Hebrew slave”, a reference to Exodus 2:11. During the sixteenth century, a number of distinguished poets from northern Israel strongly rooted in mystical teachings contributed with their compositions to the liturgy. Isaac Luria, Solomon Alkabetz wrote in Hebrew and Aramaic. The pizmon “Yodukha Rayonai” was one of the many composed by the reknowned kabbalist Rabbi Israel Najara (1555-1628) and its melody is a contrafacta of the Turkish song “Fel Sharah Canet Betet Masha”. Some of the liturgical texts differ somewhat from their Ashkenazic counterparts. They substitute words or include extra verses not found among Ashkenazic sources. The Sephardic versions of “Adon ‘Olam”, a poem attributed to Rabbi Shelomoh ibn Gabirol (Malaga, c. 1020-c. 1057), range between twelve and as long as sixteen lines. The standart Ashkenazic liturgy has eliminated a number of them and only ten remain. In the case of “Igdal”, a hymn composed by Daniel ben Yehuda of Rome in the fourteenth century, the Sefaradim add an extra line that ends exultingly: “These are the Thirteen Principles; they are the base of divine faith and of his Torah”.
Sephardic Jews do not use musical instruments during religious services making vocal music the only choice. Printed music is scant since music is mostly learned through oral tradition. As with secular music, monodic music is the rule and choirs are not customary. The opening and closing liturgical poems are traditionally set to contrafacts. Among them are “Lekha Dodi”, “Adon ‘Olam”, “Igdal”, the Kaddish preceding Barekhu (the invocation to prayer,), the Keddusha (Sanctification) usually rendered in an elaborate musical manner and open to musical innovation and the Hallel service (Psalm 113-118) sung at the beginning of the new month and holidays. These poems receive a different musical treatment depending on the time of year. The singing of contrafacts is less frequent during paraliturgical events such as the Birkat haMazon (Grace after Meals), the Habdalah (ceremony that concludes the Sabbath), the Pesah seder and the Berit Milah (circumcision ceremony). Melodies are, by and large, eminently participatory. The liturgical melodies sung at Sephardic synagogues are musically simple and repetitive. In other words, they are highly accessible to the congregation who can and wants to participate throughout the service. The most popular liturgical poems are responsorial with the Hazzan, the liturgical leader, singing the more elaborate parts and being answered by the congregation. In the case of “En keElohenu” some communities sing each stanza in Hebrew followed by its Ladino translation: “No hay como nuestro Dió,/ no hay como nuestro Siñor,/ no hay como nuestro Rey,/no hay como nuestro Salvador.” The most important and basic function of the Hazzan consists in leading the congregation in prayer. More than for his musical ability, the congregation is attentive to his precise pronunciation and in-depth knowledge of Hebrew grammar. A successful Hazzan is praised for his expressive rendition of the prayers and his enunciation and articulation of the text. Concluding remarks Originally, Sephardic music was not meant for the concert halls; it was
cultivated and enjoyed within the home and synagogue. Because of its commercialization,
to do what we normally would do with our grandmothers and uncles wouldn’t
work on stage. To attract a popular audience we have had to create a new
environment. Personally, I struggle with this issue. To make the music
more appealing to wider audiences, I have had to make concessions especially
in the area of the musical arrangements while still retaining the identity
of the music. Five centuries after the expulsion of the Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, we continue in our search for our collective identity. The evolution of our music mirrors this path. Avner Peretz, a contemporary poet born in Jerusalem, dedicated his poem, “Siniza i fumo”, to the memory of the sixty thousand Jews of Salonika, Greece, who were massacred by the Nazis during the Sho’a. I felt a strong need to compose music for this poem. The dotted rhythm at the beginning of my composition was intended as a musical metaphor for the smoke and ashes that flew and fell incessantly from the extermination camps. I do not know if the music strictly follows the characteristics of “Sephardic music”. What I do know is that it is ours.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Works cited Katz, Israel. (1980). “Jewish Music: Sephardic”. New Grove
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H., Eds. (1982) Hispania Judaica: Studies on the History, Language and
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S.A. Vol. II (1993) The Cantillations and the Melodies of the Jews of Tangier, Morocco. Doctoral dissertation, University Microfilms International
Avenary, Hanoch. (1960) Etudes sur les cancionero Judeo Espagnol. Sefarad XX 377-394 Dobrinsky, Herbert. (1988) A Treasury of Sephardic Laws and Customs.
New York: Yeshiva Juhasz, Esther, ed. (1990) Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum Nulman, Macy. (1993) The Encyclopedia of Jewish Prayer. New Jersey: Jason Aronson Inc. Piatelli, Elio. (1991) Liturgical Songs from the Spanish Rite of the
Synagogue of Florence. Shiloah, Amnon. (1992) Jewish Musical Traditions. Detroit: Wayne State University Press Weich-Shahak, Susana. (1989) Judeo-Spanish Moroccan Songs for the Life Cycle. Jerusalem: The Jewish Music Research Centre, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
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